The distribution, fate, and environmental impacts of food additive nanomaterials in soil and aquatic ecosystems.

Nanomaterials in the food industry are used as food additives, and the main function of these food additives is to improve food qualities including texture, flavor, color, consistency, preservation, and nutrient bioavailability. This review aims to provide an overview of the distribution, fate, and environmental and health impacts of food additive nanomaterials in soil and aquatic ecosystems. Some of the major nanomaterials in food additives include titanium dioxide, silver, gold, silicon dioxide, iron oxide, and zinc oxide. Ingestion of food products containing food additive nanomaterials via dietary intake is considered to be one of the major pathways of human exposure to nanomaterials. Food additive nanomaterials reach the terrestrial and aquatic environments directly through the disposal of food wastes in landfills and the application of food waste-derived soil amendments. A significant amount of ingested food additive nanomaterials (> 90 %) is excreted, and these nanomaterials are not efficiently removed in the wastewater system, thereby reaching the environment indirectly through the disposal of recycled water and sewage sludge in agricultural land. Food additive nanomaterials undergo various transformation and reaction processes, such as adsorption, aggregation-sedimentation, desorption, degradation, dissolution, and bio-mediated reactions in the environment. These processes significantly impact the transport and bioavailability of nanomaterials as well as their behaviour and fate in the environment. These nanomaterials are toxic to soil and aquatic organisms, and reach the food chain through plant uptake and animal transfer. The environmental and health risks of food additive nanomaterials can be overcome by eliminating their emission through recycled water and sewage sludge.

Effect of lead exposure on histone modifications: A review.

Lead at any levels can result in detrimental health effects affecting various organ systems. These systematic manifestations under Pb exposure and the underlying probable pathophysiological mechanisms have not been elucidated completely. With advancements in molecular research under Pb exposure, epigenetics is one of the emerging field that has opened many possibilities for appreciating the role of Pb exposure in modulating gene expression profiles. In terms of epigenetic alterations reported in Pb toxicity, DNA methylation, and microRNA alterations are extensively explored in both experimental and epidemiological studies, however, the understanding of histone modifications under Pb exposure is still in its infant stage limited to experimental models. In this review, we aim to present a synoptic view of histone modifications explored in relation to Pb exposure attempting to bring out this potential lacunae in research. The scarcity of studies associating histone modifications with Pb toxicity, and the paucity of their validation in human cohort further emphasizes the strong research potential of this field. We summarize the review by presenting our hypotheses regarding the involvement of these histone modification in various diseases modalities associated with Pb toxicity.

Biochar modulating soil biological health: A review.

Biochar can be used for multifunctional applications including the improvement of soil health and carbon storage, remediation of contaminated soil and water resources, mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and odorous compounds, and feed supplementation to improve animal health. A healthy soil preserves microbial biodiversity that is effective in supressing plant pathogens and pests, recycling nutrients for plant growth, promoting positive symbiotic associations with plant roots, improving soil structure to supply water and nutrients, and ultimately enhancing soil productivity and plant growth. As a soil amendment, biochar assures soil biological health through different processes. First, biochar supports habitats for microorganisms due to its porous nature and by promoting the formation of stable soil micro-aggregates. Biochar also serves as a carbon and nutrient source. Biochar alters soil physical and chemical properties, creating optimum soil conditions for microbial diversity. Biochar can also immobilize soil pollutants and reduce their bioavailability that would otherwise inhibit microbial growth. However, depending on the pyrolysis settings and feedstock resources, biochar can be comprised of contaminants including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and potentially toxic elements that can inhibit microbial activity, thereby impacting soil health.

Unravelling blood-based epigenetic mechanisms: the impact of hsa-miR-146a and histone H3 acetylation in lead-induced inflammation among occupational workers.

BACKGROUND: Occupational and environmental exposure to lead (Pb) is a persistent health problem majorly in developing countries and has been implied to cause epigenetic alterations. Its effect on histone post-translational modifications is not explored in human population. MicroRNAs are epigenetic modulators reported to be differentially expressed under Pb exposure. The present study was targeted to find plausible association between the role of hsa-miR-146a and global histone (H3) acetylation in Pb-induced inflammation in occupationally exposed workers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 100 occupationally exposed individuals working in different industries were recruited for the study and divided into 2 groups based on the median Pb levels [low Pb group (Pb < 5 µg/dL) and High Pb group (Pb > 5 µg/dL)]. The Pb levels were measured in whole blood using atomic absorption spectrometry to confirm Pb exposure. Histone H3 acetylation and serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels were measured using colorimetric methods and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. MicroRNA-146a expression was quantified using TaqMan assay. RESULTS: The median BLL of the study population was 5 µg/dL. BLL, IL-6, and Histone (H3) acetylation increased significantly with the duration of exposure. BLL level showed a significant positive correlation with IL-6 and histone H3 acetylation level. We also found that hsa-miR-146a exhibited significantly increased expression in the high Pb group compared to the low Pb group (Fold change: 2.56; P = 0.014). The linear regression model suggested that BLL has significantly predicted histone H3 acetylation, hsa-miR-146a, and IL-6 in the study subjects. CONCLUSION: The finding that hsa-miR146a was significantly upregulated in individuals with high BLL and had a significant negative correlation with serum IL-6 suggests that Pb-induced oxidative stress likely activates H3 acetylation, which then releases inflammatory cytokines like IL-6.

Plasma microRNA expression and immunoregulatory cytokines in an Indian population occupationally exposed to cadmium.

Following its accumulation in the body, cadmium (Cd) exposure is associated with devastating effects on multiple organ system of the human body. The immune system is one of the sensitive targets for Cd-induced toxicity. Recently, studies have demonstrated a significant role of Cd in inducing epigenetic alterations. With this background, the present study was planned to study the changes in candidate microRNA (miRNA) expression associated with immune regulation in occupationally Cd-exposed workers. One hundred individuals involved in welding and metal handicraft manufacturing, while 80 apparently healthy subjects without any prior history of occupational exposure were recruited for the study. Blood Cd level was determined by atomic absorption spectrometry. Serum cytokine levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and serum miRNA expression of candidate miRNAs (miR-146a, miR-210, and miR-222) were determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction. The median Cd level (2.40 µg/L) in the occupationally exposed workers was significantly higher than the nonexposed subjects (0.90 µg/L). Among the cytokines, interleukin-4 (IL-4), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) were significantly higher while IL-2 and IL-10 were significantly lower in the exposed. The expression level of miR-146a and miR-222 were significantly different between the groups with the former showing downregulation and later showing upregulation. Correlation analysis revealed a positive and negative association of miR-222 and miR-146a with blood cadmium level, IL-17 as well as TNF-α, respectively. Furthermore, the in-silico analysis revealed a significant role of the studied miRNAs in various cellular and genetic pathways. The findings of the present study demonstrate significant involvement of Cd-induced alteration in miRNAs in varied immune regulatory changes in exposed individuals.

The efficacy of mindfulness-based intervention in ameliorating externalizing behaviors and attentional concerns among college students.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of a mindfulness-based intervention among college students with externalizing behaviors and attentional problems. Participants: Three students attending their first year in college received mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) intervention and data were collected pre-intervention, during the intervention, post-intervention, and follow-up. Methods: The study utilized a single-case design (SCD). Data were collected via the Conners continuous performance test, Third Edition (CPT-3), the Conners Continuous Auditory Test of Attention (CATA), the Behavioral Assessment Scale for Children, Flex Monitor, Third Edition (BASC-3 FM), and the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). Results: Data were analyzed by calculating standard error of the difference, reliable change index, non-overlap of all pairs (NAP), and Tau-U. Conclusions: The results of this study strongly suggest that mindfulness may be an effective intervention for addressing externalizing behaviors and attentional problems among first-year college students.

Hypertension and its association with body mass index among the Indian population. Findings from a nationwide survey (NFHS-4), 2015-16.

Background: Globally, hypertension (HTN) and obesity are two cardinal causes of morbidity and mortality. The Asian population shows comorbidities associated with obesity at a much lower body mass index (BMI) than the western population. Aim: The primary objective of the present study was to evaluate the association between BMI and HTN among the adult population. Material and Methods: We did a cross-sectional secondary data analysis of the NFHS-4 datasets, conducted during 2015-16. We included the adult population, that is, ≥19 years of age (93,040 men and 5,46,066 women), and excluded adolescents and pregnant women from our analysis. HTN was the primary dependent variable, while BMI was the primary predictor variable. Other covariates included age, education, place of residence, wealth index, use of alcohol and tobacco, and diabetes. Weighted analysis was done to depict our results. Results: Around 18.7% of men and 13.5% of women were hypertensive, of which 53.86% of males and 38.7% females were either overweight or obese. The odds of living with HTN among obese men and women increased with age, wealth, use of alcohol and tobacco, and comorbidities such as diabetes. The prevalence of HTN was higher even among the underweight adults living with diabetes and those consuming alcohol and tobacco. Conclusion: We reaffirm the significant association between BMI and HTN among adults. The use of the Asian classification of BMI for India and its neighboring countries to assess the burden of obesity would help in planning better interventions. A community-based targeted approach would help in controlling and reducing the prevalence of HTN.

Multi-sectoral implementation interface framework (MIIF) to achieve the objective of tobacco-free Himachal Pradesh.

The limitations observed in achieving the goal of a tobacco-free Himachal Pradesh have necessitated the need to contextualize the existing policy directives in tobacco reduction. Our observation has been that despite having clearly defined policy guidelines and laws, the implementation may not have followed suit. An analysis of the gaps observed had led us to develop an implementation interface framework involving stakeholders from multiple sectors.

Tobacco use and uncontrolled hypertension among Indian men: Insights from the National Family He alth Survey (NFHS-4), 2015-2016.

Background: Tobacco use is a modifiable risk factor for developing cardiovascular diseases, of which hypertension is a major killer. Uncontrolled hypertension (UHT) is a major public health concern that exerts a financial and service burden on the health system. Aim: The current analysis aimed to determine the association between tobacco use and UHT among Indian males. Material and Methods: Data from the 4th National Family Health Survey (NFHS) of 1,04,120 men aged 15-54 years were used. We estimated the adjusted prevalence ratio for having UHT among reported tobacco users and non-users. Results: The prevalence of UHT was the lowest (41.02%) among those who did not consume tobacco in any form. Among tobacco users, those smoking tobacco had the highest prevalence (53.53%) of UHT followed by those using both smoked and smokeless forms of tobacco (43.84%) and those using only smokeless forms of tobacco (42.26%). Factors significantly associated with UHT were alcohol consumption (aPR: 1.30; 95% CI: 1.19-1.43), belonging to the richer wealth quintile (richest quintile- aPR: 1.27; 95% CI: 1.05-1.38), being overweight (aPR: 3.14, 95% CI: 2.35-4.21), and being obese (aPR: 2.89, 95% CI: 2.12-.94). Higher educational status was significantly protective against UHT (aPR: 0.75; 95% CI: 0.63-0.88). Conclusions: Tobacco use is significantly associated with hypertension in Indian men. Addressing tobacco control and prevention of UHT remain the cornerstones for achieving the SDG target 3.4 by 2030, which aims to reduce premature mortality from NCDs by a third by 2030 relative to 2015 levels.

Growth Differentiation Factor-15 as a Candidate Biomarker in Gynecologic Malignancies: A Meta-analysis.

Growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15), though emerged as a novel marker in gynecological cancers, is yet to be recognized in clinical diagnostics. Eligible studies were sorted from multiple online databases, namely PubMed, Cochrane, ClinicalTrials.gov, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Embase, Scopus, LILACS, and Opengrey. From six studies, histopathologically diagnosed cases without prior treatment, and with diagnostic accuracy data for GDF-15 in gynecological cancers, were included. Our meta-analysis shows that GDF-15 has pooled diagnostic odds ratio of 12.74 at 80.5% sensitivity and 74.1% specificity, and an area under the curve of 0.84. Hence, GDF-15 is a potential marker to differentiate gynecological malignancy from non-malignant tumors.

Role of urinary Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin (NGAL), Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1(MCP-1), and Interleukin-6(IL-6) as biomarkers in pediatric patients with hydronephrosis.

OBJECTIVES: The decision to surgically intervene in a hydronephrotic kidney in children is based on many debatable guidelines, some requiring repeated ultrasounds or renal scans. Urinary proteins have the potential to reflect renal disorders and hence can be the alternatives to such scans. Here, we aim to assess the role of urinary Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin, Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1, and Interleukin-6 (IL-6) in such patients. METHODS: Seventeen children had obstructive hydronephrosis requiring pyeloplasty (UPJO), while seven were kept on conservative management in view of non-obstructive dilation (NOD). Urine samples were measured for the three urinary proteins at the time of presentation and following pyeloplasty using commercially available ELISA kits. RESULTS: The levels of all three urinary proteins were significantly higher in patients with UPJO children compared to the NOD group. Cut-off values to differentiate obstructive from non-obstructive hydronephrosis were obtained. A significant fall in the post-operative value of urinary IL-6 was also observed. CONCLUSION: This study highlights the potentiality of urinary proteins as biomarkers in identifying children with hydronephrosis and picking out the ones with obstructive hydronephrosis who will require pyeloplasty. The drop in levels after pyeloplasty can be employed to evaluate the effectiveness of pyeloplasty when sent serially.

Experience with Resorbable Plates for Fixation of Mandible Fracture. A Prospective Study of 10 Cases.

Aim: This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of resorbable plates for the fixation of mandible fracture. Materials and Methods: 10 cases of fracture mandible were treated with resorbable plates using the Inion CPS system. Patients were evaluated during their entire hospital stay and recalled on 1st, 4th, and 8th postoperative weeks. A thorough evaluation was done at the recall visits for any surgical and postoperative complications such as infection, malocclusion, neural abnormalities, wound or suture dehiscence, segmental mobility, foreign body reaction, and pain on biting. Bite force measurements were taken to evaluate the return of function. Results: Clinical union of the fracture was noted at the 8th week follow-up examination for all cases. There were swelling and pain at the operated site at 8th week follow-up for one patient, which was managed conservatively. The mean bite force was recorded for different regions and it increased over the entire follow-up period progressively. Conclusion: These plates and screws are an essential tool in the treatment of mandibular fractures owing to benefits such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and the ability to be eliminated via the body's natural processes.

Risk Factors for Lead Toxicity and its Effect on Neurobehavior in Indian Children.

Lead (Pb) is profoundly used heavy metal despite its known toxic effects. Children in particular are more susceptible to Pb toxicity. Thus, the present study was carried out to estimate the prevalence of lead toxicity in Indian children, to observe serum levels of biochemical parameters and to evaluate psychopathological implications of Pb toxicity using population specific scale-Childhood Psychopathological Measurement Schedule (CPMS) in children. Children between 9 and 15 years of age were included in the study (N = 70). Demographic details and information regarding the source of lead exposure were collected using a self-made questionnaire. All biochemical investigations were performed in Beckman Coulter Auto-analyser AU680 and Blood Lead Levels (BLL) were estimated by Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The neurobehavioral state of the children was assessed by a population-specific scale i.e., CPMS, which evaluates for neurobehavior under 8 factors, titled, Low intelligence with behavioural problems, Conduct disorder, Anxiety, Depression, Psychotic symptoms, Special symptoms, Physical illness with emotional problems, and Somatization. The median BLL of the study population was 4.9 µg/dL. Habit of frequently consuming roadside food, proximity of residence to vehicular traffic and educational status of the mother were observed to be significant contributing factors for high BLL (≥ 5 µg/dL). Serum alkaline phosphatase (P = 0.02) and phosphorous levels (P = 0.04) were significantly lower in children belonging to high BLL group. A significantly high adverse neurobehavioral score was observed in high BLL group children compared to low BLL group (P < 0.05). There was high prevalence of Pb toxicity with 50% of children having BLL > 5 µg/dL. Further, certain lifestyle characteristics such as proximity of residence to vehicular traffic, frequent consumption of roadside food and lower educational status of the mother could be possible risk factors for higher Pb exposure in children. Evaluation of neurobehavior in children with high BLL revealed a high prevalence of adverse neurobehavior in them when compared to children in low BLL group.

ABC transporters in breast cancer: their roles in multidrug resistance and beyond.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are membrane-spanning proteins involved in cholesterol homeostasis, transport of various molecules in and out of cells and organelles, oxidative stress, immune recognition, and drug efflux. They are long implicated in the development of multidrug resistance in cancer chemotherapy. Existing clinical and molecular evidence has also linked ABC transporters with cancer pathogenesis, prognostics, and therapy. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive update on all ABC transporters and their roles in drug resistance in breast cancer (BC). For solid tumours such as BC, various ABC transporters are highly expressed in less differentiated subtypes and metastases. ABCA1, ABCB1 and ABCG2 are key players in BC chemoresistance. Restraining these transporters has evolved as a possible mechanism to reverse this phenomenon. Further, ABCB1 and ABCC1 are important in BC prognosis. Newer therapeutic approaches have been developed to target all these molecules to dysregulate their effect, reduce cell viability, induce apoptosis, and increase drug sensitivity. In the future, targeted therapy for specific genetic variations and upstream or downstream molecules can help improve patient prognosis.

Selenium Levels in Occupationally Lead Exposed Workers of Rajasthan.

Occupational and environmental exposure to Lead (Pb) has profound detrimental effects on human health. The underlying mechanism of lead toxicity is not fully understood but antioxidant imbalance is suggested to be a key player in its pathogenesis. Selenium (Se) being a vital component of antioxidant system in the body, has been linked to many health benefits in humans. Selenium levels in occupationally Pb exposed individuals has not been explored in Indian setup. The aim of the present study is to find out the association of Se with blood lead levels (BLL) in occupationally Pb exposed individuals. In the present study 91 occupationally Pb exposed workers employed in handicraft and paint industries were recruited after taking informed consent. The demographic details were noted on self-generated questionnaire. The BLL and Se were measured using GFAAS (Thermofisher Scientific, Waltham, USA). Samples were run in duplicate after ensuring quality control. The mean Pb and Se levels in the study population were 5.5 ± 5.6 µg/dl (0.42-31.76 µg/dl) and 105.5 ± 23.8 µg/dl (46.4-189.6 µg/dl) respectively. BLL was significantly higher in tobacco chewers and those occupationally exposed to Pb for more than 5 years. Significantly low Se levels were observed in individuals with high BLL. Statistically significant negative linear relationship was noted between BLL and Se. The negative correlation of Se with BLL indicates the antagonistic relationship between these metals.

FOXM1 mediates GDF-15 dependent stemness and intrinsic drug resistance in breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Stemness, a key component of breast cancer (BC) heterogeneity, is responsible for chemoresistance. Growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15) induces drug resistance and stemness in BC cells. In this study, the expressions and interactions of GDF-15, FOXM1, and stemness (OCT4 and SOX2), and drug resistance (ABCC5) markers were evaluated in BC. METHODS AND RESULTS: 40 diagnosed BC patients and 40 healthy controls were included in this study. Serum GDF-15 was significantly raised (p < 0.001) in BC patients. Expressions of GDF-15, OCT4, SOX2, and FOXM1 in BC tissue and cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) were determined by RT-PCR, while phosphorylated AKT (p-AKT) was analyzed by Western blot. Not only were the fold change expressions higher in cancer tissue as compared to surrounding control tissue, but a higher expression was observed for all the genes along with p-AKT in MDA-MB-231 cells compared to MCF-7. Tissue GDF-15 was significantly associated with ABCC5 (p < 0.001), OCT4 (p = 0.002), SOX2 (p < 0.001), and FOXM1 (p < 0.001). To further analyze the signaling pathway involved in stemness and drug resistance in BC, GDF-15 knockdown was performed, which reduced the expression of p-AKT, FOXM1, OCT4 and SOX2, and ABCC5, whereas recombinant GDF-15 treatment reversed the same. In silico analyses in UALCAN revealed a similar picture for these genes to that of BC tissue expression. CONCLUSIONS: GDF-15 promotes stemness and intrinsic drug resistance in BC, possibly mediated by the p-AKT/FOXM1 axis.

Systematic mapping on the importance of vultures in the Indian public health discourse.

Vultures are of immense ecological significance to forest and urban ecosystems. These birds play a major role in curbing environmental contamination through scavenging on carcasses. Prevention of spread of diseases is pivotal for public health and is an inexorable economic burden for any country. We present the crucial role vultures can play in disease mitigation and public health by regulating or decreasing the spread of zoonotic diseases. We elaborate examples from three zoonotic diseases; rabies, brucellosis and tuberculosis, which spread among dogs and cattle as well as human population. We establish the viable links in the transmission of these diseases from the infected dead and alive animals to humans and their possible exacerbation in the absence of vultures. These indirect links help formulate the case for increased interventions for disease spread and control along with conservation of these scavengers. Their role as natural and effective cleaners of the environment in the Indian health discourse is of importance because they can reduce the expenses of the government in waste management and maintenance of public health.

Selenium, oxidative stress and inflammatory markers in handicraft workers occupationally exposed to lead.

Occupational Lead (Pb) exposure increases reactive oxygen species and has been reported to impact inflammatory response by modulating intracellular signaling pathways. Selenium (Se) a vital component of the antioxidant system that plays an important role in modulating cytokines. The present study evaluated Se, malondialdehyde (MDA), total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10, IL-17a) in 81 Pb exposed male workers. The median (range) of blood lead level (BLL) and Se were 5 (0.50-31.76) µg/dL and 104 (46.9-189.6) µg/L respectively. The Se, TAC levels were decreased, and MDA, IL-6 levels were increased in the high Pb group (>5µg/dL). Blood lead level independently predicted oxidative stress and antioxidant status. Selenium, TAC levels negatively and MDA, IL-6 levels positively correlated with BLL. Association of Se with IL-6 and TAC suggests some probable role of Se in the underlined mechanism of Pb toxicity.

Effect of occupational co-exposure to lead and cadmium on selected immunomodulatory cytokines.

Occupational exposure to heavy metals like lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) is associated with the development of several diseases. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of occupational co-exposure to Pb and Cd on the blood levels of selected immune-modulatory cytokines related to T helper (Th), that is, Th1, interleukin-2 (IL-2), Th2, (IL-4 and IL-10), and Th17, (IL-17) cells. The study comprised 207 individuals divided into two groups: exposed (n = 110) and nonexposed (n = 97). Blood Pb and Cd were determined using Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, and serum levels of cytokines were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The study revealed significantly higher blood Pb and Cd levels in the exposed group. A significant decrease in Th1 cytokine-IL-2 and Th2 cytokine-IL-10 was found, while IL-4 (Th2 cytokine) and IL-17 (Th17) levels were higher in the exposed group. In the mixed exposure analysis, among all the selected cytokines, IL-4 levels were significantly different between individuals having higher levels of both Pb and Cd versus lower levels of Pb and Cd. While IL-2 levels were highest among the low Pb and Cd group, the IL-17 levels were highest among individuals with higher Cd levels. The study demonstrated that co-exposure to low levels of Pb and Cd might have an immune-modulatory effect. The data suggested a metal-induced pro-inflammatory immune response.

A clinical and in-silico study exploring the association of CASP-3, NF-kB, miR-187, and miR-146 in pre-eclampsia.

INTRODUCTION: Apoptosis is involved in pathogenesis of Pre-eclampsia (PE), further research is needed to determine its molecular mechanism. METHODS: The study recruited two groups (controls; 09, PE; 11). Biochemical tests, RT-PCR and ELISA were employed for analysis of genes and MicroRNAs (miRNA). Bioinformatics tools were employed for interactomics analysis. RESULTS: There was increased apoptosis in maternal placental tissue (MPT) and Maternal Blood Cells (MBC) as demonstrated by expression of CASP3 and NF-κB1. miR-146-5p and 187-5p were downregulated in MBC and MPT but upregulated in fetal placental tissue (FPT).. DISCUSSION: An increased apoptosis in MBC and MPT is a significant contributory factor for PE in pregnancy, while FPT is immune to the aforementioned effects.